Semi-solid electrodes having high rate capability

ABSTRACT

Embodiments described herein relate generally to electrochemical cells having high rate capability, and more particularly to devices, systems and methods of producing high capacity and high rate capability batteries having relatively thick semi-solid electrodes. In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell includes an anode, a semi-solid cathode that includes a suspension of an active material and a conductive material in a liquid electrolyte, and an ion permeable membrane disposed between the anode and the cathode. The semi-solid cathode has a thickness in the range of about 250 μm-2,500 μm, and the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 5 mAh/cm 2  at a C-rate of C/2.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/872,613, filed Apr. 29, 2013, entitled “Semi-Solid Electrodes Having High Rate Capability,” now U.S. Pat. No. 8,993,159, issued Mar. 31, 2015, which claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/736,798, filed Dec. 13, 2012, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/787,382, filed Mar. 15, 2013, the disclosures of each of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Grant Number DE-AR0000102 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND

Embodiments described herein relate generally to electrochemical cells having high rate capability, and more particularly to devices, systems and methods of producing high capacity and high rate capability batteries having relatively thick semi-solid electrodes.

Batteries are typically constructed of solid electrodes, separators, electrolyte, and ancillary components such as, for example, packaging, thermal management, cell balancing, consolidation of electrical current carriers into terminals, and/or other such components. The electrodes typically include active materials, conductive materials, binders and other additives.

Some known methods for preparing batteries include coating a metallic substrate (e.g., a current collector) with slurry composed of an active material, a conductive additive, and a binding agent dissolved or dispersed in a solvent, evaporating the solvent, and calendering the dried solid matrix to a specified thickness. The electrodes are then cut, packaged with other components, infiltrated with electrolyte and the entire package is then sealed.

Such known methods generally involve complicated and expensive manufacturing steps such as casting the electrode and are only suitable for electrodes of limited thickness, for example, less than 100 μm (final single sided coated thickness). These known methods for producing electrodes of limited thickness result in batteries with lower capacity, lower energy density and a high ratio of inactive components to active materials. Furthermore, the binders used in known electrode formulations can increase tortuosity and decrease the ionic conductivity of the electrode.

Thus, it is an enduring goal of energy storage systems development to simplify and reduce manufacturing cost, reduce inactive components in the electrodes and finished batteries, and increase energy density, charge capacity and overall performance.

SUMMARY

Embodiments described herein relate generally to electrochemical cells having high rate capability, and more particularly to devices, systems and methods of producing high capacity and high rate capability batteries having relatively thick semi-solid electrodes. In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell includes an anode, a semi-solid cathode that includes a suspension of an active material and a conductive material in a liquid electrolyte, and an ion permeable membrane disposed between the anode and the cathode. The semi-solid cathode has a thickness in the range of about 250 μm-2,500 μm, and the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 5 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/2.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of an electrochemical cell according to an embodiment.

FIG. 2 illustrates the areal discharge capacity vs. current density at various C-rates of four different semi-solid cathodes described herein, in comparison with commercially available batteries.

FIG. 3A-3B illustrate the capacity of an exemplary electrochemical cell as a function of charge and discharge rate, and a sample charge/discharge curve.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Consumer electronic batteries have gradually increased in energy density with the progress of lithium-ion battery technology. The stored energy or charge capacity of a manufactured battery is a function of: (1) the inherent charge capacity of the active material (mAh/g), (2) the volume of the electrodes (cm³) (i.e., the product of the electrode thickness, electrode area, and number of layers (stacks)), and (3) the loading of active material in the electrode media (e.g., grams of active material per cm³ of electrode media). Therefore, to enhance commercial appeal (e.g., increased energy density and decreased cost), it is generally desirable to increase the areal charge capacity (mAh/cm²). The areal charge capacity can be increased, for example, by utilizing active materials that have a higher inherent charge capacity, increasing relative percentage of active charge storing material (i.e., “loading”) in the overall electrode formulation, and/or increasing the relative percentage of electrode material used in any given battery form factor. Said another way, increasing the ratio of active charge storing components (e.g., the electrodes) to inactive components (e.g., the separators and current collectors), increases the overall energy density of the battery by eliminating or reducing components that are not contributing to the overall performance of the battery. One way to accomplish increasing the areal charge capacity, and therefore reducing the relative percentage of inactive components, is by increasing the thickness of the electrodes.

Conventional electrode compositions have capacities of approximately 150-200 mAh/g and generally cannot be made thicker than about 100 μm because of certain performance and manufacturing limitations. For example, i) conventional electrodes having a thickness over 100 μm (single sided coated thickness) typically have significant reductions in their rate capability due to diffusion limitations through the thickness of the electrode (e.g. porosity, tortuosity, impedance, etc.) which grows rapidly with increasing thickness; ii) thick conventional electrodes are difficult to manufacture due to drying and post processing limitations, for example, solvent removal rate, capillary forces during drying that leads to cracking of the electrode, poor adhesion of the electrode to the current collector leading to delamination (e.g., during the high speed roll-to-roll calendering process used for manufacturing conventional electrodes), migration of binder during the solvent removal process and/or deformation during a subsequent compression process; iii) without being bound to any particular theory, the binders used in conventional electrodes may obstruct the pore structure of the electrodes and increase the resistance to diffusion of ions by reducing the available volume of pores and increasing tortuosity (i.e. effective path length) by occupying a significant fraction of the space between the functional components of the electrodes (i.e. active and conductive components). It is also known that binders used in conventional electrodes can at least partially coat the surface of the electrode active materials, which slows down or completely blocks the flow of ions to the active materials, thereby increasing tortuosity.

Furthermore, known conventional batteries either have high capacity or high rate capability, but not both. A battery having a first charge capacity at first C-rate, for example, 0.5C generally has a second lower charge capacity when discharged at a second higher C-rate, for example, 2C. This is due to the higher energy loss that occurs inside a conventional battery due to the high internal resistance of conventional electrodes (e.g. solid electrodes with binders), and a drop in voltage that causes the battery to reach the low-end voltage cut-off sooner. A thicker electrode generally has a higher internal resistance and therefore a lower rate capability. For example, a lead acid battery does not perform well at 1C C-rate. They are often rated at a 0.2C C-rate and even at this low C-rate, they cannot attain 100% capacity. In contrast, Ultracapcitors can be discharged at an extremely high C-rate and still maintain 100% capacity, however, they have a much lower capacity then conventional batteries. Accordingly, a need exists for batteries with thicker electrodes, but without the aforementioned limitations. The resulting batteries with superior performance characteristics, for example, superior rate capability and charge capacity, and also are simpler to manufacture.

Semi-solid electrodes described herein can be made: (i) thicker (e.g., greater than 250 μm-up to 2,000 μm or even greater) due to the reduced tortuosity and higher electronic conductivity of the semi-solid electrode, (ii) with higher loadings of active materials, and (iii) with a simplified manufacturing process utilizing less equipment. These relatively thick semi-solid electrodes decrease the volume, mass and cost contributions of inactive components with respect to active components, thereby enhancing the commercial appeal of batteries made with the semi-solid electrodes. In some embodiments, the semi-solid electrodes described herein are binderless and/or do not use binders that are used in conventional battery manufacturing. Instead, the volume of the electrode normally occupied by binders in conventional electrodes, is now occupied by: 1) electrolyte, which has the effect of decreasing tortuosity and increasing the total salt available for ion diffusion, thereby countering the salt depletion effects typical of thick conventional electrodes when used at high rate, 2) active material, which has the effect of increasing the charge capacity of the battery, or 3) conductive additive, which has the effect of increasing the electronic conductivity of the electrode, thereby countering the high internal impedance of thick conventional electrodes. The reduced tortuosity and a higher electronic conductivity of the semi-solid electrodes described herein, results in superior rate capability and charge capacity of electrochemical cells formed from the semi-solid electrodes. Since the semi-solid electrodes described herein, can be made substantially thicker than conventional electrodes, the ratio of active materials (i.e., the semi-solid cathode and/or anode) to inactive materials (i.e. the current collector and separator) can be much higher in a battery formed from electrochemical cell stacks that include semi-solid electrodes relative to a similar battery formed form electrochemical cell stacks that include conventional electrodes. This substantially increases the overall charge capacity and energy density of a battery that includes the semi-solid electrodes described herein.

In some embodiments, the electrode materials described herein can be a flowable semi-solid or condensed liquid composition. A flowable semi-solid electrode can include a suspension of an electrochemically active material (anodic or cathodic particles or particulates), and optionally an electronically conductive material (e.g., carbon) in a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte. Said another way, the active electrode particles and conductive particles are co-suspended in an electrolyte to produce a semi-solid electrode. Examples of battery architectures utilizing semi-solid suspensions are described in International Patent Publication No. WO 2012/024499, entitled “Stationary, Fluid Redox Electrode,” and International Patent Publication No. WO 2012/088442, entitled “Semi-Solid Filled Battery and Method of Manufacture,” the entire disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

In some embodiments, semi-solid electrode compositions (also referred to herein as “semi-solid suspension” and/or “slurry”) described herein can be mixed in a batch process e.g., with a batch mixer that can include, e.g., a high shear mixture, a planetary mixture, a centrifugal planetary mixture, a sigma mixture, a CAM mixture, and/or a roller mixture, with a specific spatial and/or temporal ordering of component addition, as described in more detail herein. In some embodiments, slurry components can be mixed in a continuous process (e.g. in an extruder), with a specific spatial and/or temporal ordering of component addition.

The mixing and forming of a semi-solid electrode generally includes: (i) raw material conveyance and/or feeding, (ii) mixing, (iii) mixed slurry conveyance, (iv) dispensing and/or extruding, and (v) forming. In some embodiments, multiple steps in the process can be performed at the same time and/or with the same piece of equipment. For example, the mixing and conveyance of the slurry can be performed at the same time with an extruder. Each step in the process can include one or more possible embodiments. For example, each step in the process can be performed manually or by any of a variety of process equipment. Each step can also include one or more sub-processes and, optionally, an inspection step to monitor process quality.

In some embodiments, the process conditions can be selected to produce a prepared slurry having a mixing index of at least about 0.80, at least about 0.90, at least about 0.95, or at least about 0.975. In some embodiments, the process conditions can be selected to produce a prepared slurry having an electronic conductivity of at least about 10⁻⁶ S/cm, at least about 10⁻⁵ S/cm, at least about 10⁻⁴ S/cm, at least about 10⁻³ S/cm, or at least about 10⁻² S/cm. In some embodiments, the process conditions can be selected to produce a prepared slurry having an apparent viscosity at room temperature of less than about 100,000 Pa-s, less than about 10,000 Pa-s, or less than about 1,000 Pa-s, all at an apparent shear rate of 1,000 s⁻¹. In some embodiments, the process conditions can be selected to produce a prepared slurry having two or more properties as described herein. Examples of systems and methods that can be used for preparing the semi-solid compositions and/or electrodes are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/832,861, filed Mar. 15, 2013, entitled “Electrochemical Slurry Compositions and Methods for Preparing the Same,” the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

As used herein, the term “about” and “approximately” generally mean plus or minus 10% of the value stated, e.g., about 250 μm would include 225 μm to 275 μm, about 1,000 μm would include 900 μm to 1,100 μm.

As used herein, the term “semi-solid” refers to a material that is a mixture of liquid and solid phases, for example, such as particle suspension, colloidal suspension, emulsion, gel, or micelle.

As used herein, the term “condensed ion-storing liquid” or “condensed liquid” refers to a liquid that is not merely a solvent, as in the case of an aqueous flow cell semi-solid cathode or anode, but rather, it is itself redox active. Of course, such a liquid form may also be diluted by or mixed with another, non-redox active liquid that is a diluent or solvent, including mixing with such a diluent to form a lower-melting liquid phase, emulsion or micelles including the ion-storing liquid.

As used herein, the terms “activated carbon network” and “networked carbon” relate to a general qualitative state of an electrode. For example, an electrode with an activated carbon network (or networked carbon) is such that the carbon particles within the electrode assume an individual particle morphology and arrangement with respect to each other that facilitates electrical contact and electrical conductivity between particles and through the thickness and length of the electrode. Conversely, the terms “unactivated carbon network” and “unnetworked carbon” relate to an electrode wherein the carbon particles either exist as individual particle islands or multi-particle agglomerate islands that may not be sufficiently connected to provide adequate electrical conduction through the electrode.

In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell for storing energy includes an anode, a semi-solid cathode including a suspension of an active material and a conductive material in a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte, and an ion permeable separator disposed between the anode and the cathode. The semi-solid cathode can have a thickness in the range of about 250 μm to about 2,000 μm. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell is configured such that at a C-rate of C/4, the electrochemical cell has an area specific discharge capacity (also referred to as “areal capacity”) of at least 5 mAh/cm², at least about 6 mAh/cm², at least about 7 mAh/cm², at least about 8 mAh/cm², at least about 9 mAh/cm², or at least about 10 mAh/cm². In some embodiments, at a C-rate of C/2, the electrochemical cell has an areal capacity of at least 5 mAh/cm², at least about 6 mAh/cm², at least about 7 mAh/cm², at least about 8 mAh/cm², or at least about 9 mAh/cm². In some embodiments, at a C-rate of 1C, the electrochemical cell has an areal capacity of at least 4 mAh/cm², at least about 5 mAh/cm², at least about 6 mAh/cm², or at least about 7 mAh/cm². In some embodiments, at a C-rate of 2C, the electrochemical cell has an areal capacity of at least 3 mAh/cm², at least about 4 mAh/cm², or at least about 5 mAh/cm². In some embodiments, at C-rates between about 2C and about 5C, the electrochemical cell has an areal capacity of at least about 1 mAh/cm², or at least about 2 mAh/cm².

In some embodiments, the thickness of the semi-solid cathode is at least about 250 μm. In some embodiments, the thickness of the semi-solid electrodes can be at least about 300 μm, at least about 350 μm, at least about 400 μm, at least about 450 μm, at least about 500 μm, at least about 600 μm, at least about 700 μm, at least about 800 μm, at least about 900 μm, at least about 1,000 μm, at least about 1,500 μm, and up to about 2,000 μm, inclusive of all thicknesses therebetween.

In some embodiments, the anode can be a conventional anode, for example, a lithium metal anode or a calendered anode. In some embodiments, the anode can be a semi-solid anode that can have a thickness that is substantially similar to the thickness of the semi-solid cathode such as, for example, of at least abut 250 μm, at least about 300 μm, at least about 350 μm, at least about 400 μm, at least about 450 μm, at least about 500 μm, and so on.

In some embodiments, the thickness of the semi-solid electrodes can be in the range of about 250 μm to about 2,000 μm, about 300 μm to about 2,000 μm, about 350 μm to about 2,000 μm, 400 μm to about 2,000 μm, about 450 μm to about 2,000 μm, about 500 to about 2,000 μm, about 250 μm to about 1,500 μm, about 300 μm to about 1,500 μm, about 350 μm to about 1,500 μm, about 400 μm to about 1,500 μm, about 450 μm to about 1,500 μm, about 500 to about 1,500 μm, about 250 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 300 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 350 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 400 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 450 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 500 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 250 μm to about 750 μm, about 300 μm to about 750 μm, about 350 μm to about 750 μm, about 400 μm to about 750 μm, about 450 μm to about 750 μm, about 500 μm to about 750 μm, about 250 μm to about 700 μm, about 300 μm to about 700 μm, about 350 μm to about 700 μm, about 400 μm to about 700 μm, about 450 μm to about 700 μm, about 500 μm to about 700 μm, about 250 μm to about 650 μm, about 300 μm to about 650 μm, about 350 μm to about 650 μm, about 400 m to about 650 μm, about 450 μm to about 650 μm, about 500 μm to about 650 μm, about 250 μm to about 600 μm, about 300 μm to about 600 μm, about 350 μm to about 600 μm, about 400 μm to about 600 μm, about 450 μm to about 600 μm, about 500 μm to about 600 μm, about 250 μm to about 550 μm, about 300 μm to about 550 μm, about 350 μm to about 550 μm, about 400 μm to about 550 μm, about 450 μm to about 550 μm, or about 500 μm to about 550 μm, inclusive of all ranges or any other distance therebetween.

In some embodiments, a semi-solid anode can include an anode active material selected from lithium metal, carbon, lithium-intercalated carbon, lithium nitrides, lithium alloys and lithium alloy forming compounds of silicon, bismuth, boron, gallium, indium, zinc, tin, tin oxide, antimony, aluminum, titanium oxide, molybdenum, germanium, manganese, niobium, vanadium, tantalum, gold, platinum, iron, copper, chromium, nickel, cobalt, zirconium, yttrium, molybdenum oxide, germanium oxide, silicon oxide, silicon carbide, any other materials or alloys thereof, and any other combination thereof.

In some embodiments, a semi-solid cathode can include about 20% to about 75% by volume of an active material. In some embodiments, a semi-solid cathode can include about 40% to about 75% by volume, or 50% to about 75% by volume of an active material.

In some embodiments, a semi-solid cathode can include about 0.5% to about 25% by volume of a conductive material. In some embodiments, a semi-solid cathode can include about 1.0% to about 6% by volume of a conductive material.

In some embodiments, a semi-solid cathode can include about 25% to about 70% by volume of an electrolyte. In some embodiments, a semi-solid cathode can include about 30% to about 50%, or about 20% to about 40% by volume of an electrolyte.

In some embodiments, a semi-solid anode can include about 20% to about 75% by volume of an active material. In some embodiments, a semi-solid anode can include about 40% to about 75% by volume, or 50% to about 75% by volume of an active material.

In some embodiments, a semi-solid anode can include about 0% to about 10% by volume of a conductive material. In some embodiments, a semi-solid anode can include about 1% to about 6%, or about 0.5% to about 2% by volume of a conductive material.

In some embodiments, a semi-solid anode can include about 10% to about 70% by volume of an electrolyte. In some embodiments, a semi-solid anode can include about 30% to about 50%, or about 20% to about 40% by volume of an electrolyte.

In some embodiments, a semi-solid cathode or semi-solid anode can include less than about 10% by volume of a polymeric binder. In some embodiments, a semi-solid cathode or semi-solid anode can include less than about 5% by volume, or less than 3% by volume, or less than 1% by volume of a polymeric binder. In some embodiments, the polymeric binder comprises polyvinylidene difluoride (PVdF).

In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell includes a semi-solid cathode that can include about 60% to about 80% by weight of an active material, about 1% to about 6% by weight of a conductive material, and about 20% to about 40% by weight of a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte. The semi-solid cathode can have a thickness in the range of about 250 μm to about 2,000 μm. The electrochemical cell also include a semi-solid anode that can include about 50% to about 75% by weight of an active material, about 0.5% to about 2% by weight of a conductive material, and about 20% to about 40% by weight of a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte. The semi-solid anode can have a thickness in the range of about 250 μm to about 2,000 μm. The semi-solid anode and the semi-solid cathode are separated by an ion permeable membrane disposed therebetween.

FIG. 1 shows a schematic illustration of an electrochemical cell 100. The electrochemical cell 100 includes a positive current collector 110, a negative current collector 120 and a separator 130 disposed between the positive current collector 110 and the negative current collector 120. The positive current collector 110 is spaced from the separator 130 and at least partially defines a positive electroactive zone. The negative current collector 120 is spaced from the separator 130 and at least partially defines a negative electroactive zone. A semi-solid cathode 140 is disposed in the positive electroactive zone and an anode 150 (e.g., a semi-solid anode) is disposed in the negative electroactive zone.

The semi-solid cathode and/or anode can be disposed on a current collector, for example, coated, casted, drop coated, pressed, roll pressed, or deposited using any other suitable method. The semi-solid cathode can be disposed on positive current collector and the semi-solid anode is disposed on a negative current collector. For example the semi-solid electrode can be coated, casted, calendered and/or pressed on the current collector. The positive current collector 110 and the negative current collector 120 can be any current collectors that are electronically conductive and are electrochemically inactive under the operation conditions of the cell. Typical current collectors for lithium cells include copper, aluminum, or titanium for the negative current collector and aluminum for the positive current collector, in the form of sheets or mesh, or any combination thereof.

Current collector materials can be selected to be stable at the operating potentials of the positive and negative electrodes of an electrochemical cell 100. For example, in non-aqueous lithium systems, the positive current collector can include aluminum, or aluminum coated with conductive material that does not electrochemically dissolve at operating potentials of 2.5-5.0V with respect to Li/Li⁺. Such materials include platinum, gold, nickel, conductive metal oxides such as vanadium oxide, and carbon. The negative current collector can include copper or other metals that do not form alloys or intermetallic compounds with lithium, carbon, and/or coatings comprising such materials disposed on another conductor.

The semi-solid cathode and the semi-solid electrode included in an electrochemical cell can be separated by a separator. For example, the separator 130 can be any conventional membrane that is capable of ion transport. In some embodiments, the separator 130 is a liquid impermeable membrane that permits the transport of ions therethrough, namely a solid or gel ionic conductor. In some embodiments the separator 130 is a porous polymer membrane infused with a liquid electrolyte that allows for the shuttling of ions between the cathode 140 and anode 150 electroactive materials, while preventing the transfer of electrons. In some embodiments, the separator 130 is a microporous membrane that prevents particles forming the positive and negative electrode compositions from crossing the membrane. In some embodiments, the separator 130 is a single or multilayer microporous separator, optionally with the ability to fuse or “shut down” above a certain temperature so that it no longer transmits working ions, of the type used in the lithium ion battery industry and well-known to those skilled in the art. In some embodiments, the membrane materials comprise polyethyleneoxide (PEO) polymer in which a lithium salt is complexed to provide lithium conductivity, or Nation™ membranes which are proton conductors. For example, PEO based electrolytes can be used as the membrane, which is pinhole-free and a solid ionic conductor, optionally stabilized with other membranes such as glass fiber separators as supporting layers. PEO can also be used as a slurry stabilizer, dispersant, etc. in the positive or negative redox compositions. PEO is stable in contact with typical alkyl carbonate-based electrolytes. This can be especially useful in phosphate-based cell chemistries with cell potential at the positive electrode that is less than about 3.6 V with respect to Li metal. The operating temperature of the redox cell can be elevated as necessary to improve the ionic conductivity of the membrane.

The cathode 140 can be a semi-solid stationary cathode or a semi-solid flowable cathode, for example of the type used in redox flow cells. The cathode 140 can include an active material such as a lithium bearing compound as described in further detail below. The cathode 140 can also include a conductive material such as, for example, graphite, carbon powder, pyrloytic carbon, carbon black, carbon fibers, carbon microfibers, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), single walled CNTs, multi walled CNTs, fullerene carbons including “bucky balls,” graphene sheets and/or aggregate of graphene sheets, any other conductive material, alloys or combination thereof. The cathode 140 can also include a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte as described in further detail below.

In some embodiments, the anode 150 can be a semi-solid stationary anode. In some embodiments, the anode 150 can be a semi-solid flowable anode, for example, of the type used in redox flow cells.

The anode 150 can also include a carbonaceous material such as, for example, graphite, carbon powder, pyrloytic carbon, carbon black, carbon fibers, carbon microfibers, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), single walled CNTs, multi walled CNTs, fullerene carbons including “bucky balls”, graphene sheets and/or aggregate of graphene sheets, any other carbonaceous material or combination thereof. In some embodiments, the anode 150 can also include a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte as described in further detail herein.

In some embodiments, the cathode 140 and the anode 150 can include active materials and optionally conductive materials in particulate form suspended in a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte. In some embodiments, the cathode 140 and/or anode 150 particles (e.g., cathodic or anodic particles) can have an effective diameter of at least about 1 μm. In some embodiments, the cathodic or anodic particles have an effective diameter between about 1 μm and about 10 μm. In other embodiments, the cathodic or anodic particles have an effective diameter of at least about 10 μm or more. In some embodiments, the cathodic or anodic particles have an effective diameter of at less than about 1 μm. In other embodiments, the cathodic or anodic particles have an effective diameter of at less than about 0.5 μm. In other embodiments, the cathodic or anodic particles have an effective diameter of at less than about 0.25 μm. In other embodiments, the cathodic or anodic particles have an effective diameter of at less than about 0.1 μm. In other embodiments, the cathodic or anodic particles have an effective diameter of at less than about 0.05 μm. In other embodiments, the cathodic or anodic particles have an effective diameter of at less than about 0.01 μm.

In some embodiments, a redox mediator is used to improve the charge transfer within the semi-solid suspension. In some embodiments, the redox mediator is based on Fe²⁻ or V²⁺, V³⁻, or V⁴⁺. In some embodiments, the redox mediator is ferrocene.

In some embodiments, the conductive particles have shapes, which may include spheres, platelets, or rods to optimize solids packing fraction, increase the semi-solid's net electronic conductivity, and improve rheological behavior of semi-solids. In some embodiments, low aspect or substantially equiaxed or spherical particles are used to improve the ability of the semi-solid to flow under stress.

In some embodiments, the particles have a plurality of sizes so as to increase packing fraction. In particular, the particle size distribution can be bi-modal, in which the average particle size of the larger particle mode is at least 5 times larger than average particle size of the smaller particle mode. In some embodiments, the mixture of large and small particles improves flow of the material during cell loading and increases solid volume fraction and packing density in the loaded cell.

In some embodiments, the nature of cathode 140 and/or anode 150 semi-solid suspension can be modified prior to and subsequent to filling of the negative electroactive zone and the positive electroactive zone of an electrochemical cell to facilitate flow during loading and packing density in the loaded cell.

In some embodiments, the particle suspension is initially stabilized by repulsive interparticle steric forces that arise from surfactant molecules. After the particle suspension is loaded into the positive electroactive zone and/or the negative electroactive zone, chemical or heat treatments can cause these surface molecules to collapse or evaporate and promote densification. In some embodiments, the suspension's steric forces are modified intermittently during loading.

For example, the particle suspension can be initially stabilized by repulsive interparticle electrostatic double layer forces to decrease viscosity. The repulsive force reduces interparticle attraction and reduces agglomeration. After the particle suspension is loaded into the positive electroactive zone and/or negative electroactive zone, the surface of the particles can be further modified to reduce interparticle repulsive forces and thereby promote particle attraction and packing. For example, ionic solutions such as salt solutions can be added to the suspension to reduce the repulsive forces and promote aggregation and densification so as to produce increased solids fraction loading after filling of the electroactive zones. In some embodiments, salt is added intermittently during suspension loading to increase density in incremental layers.

In some embodiments, the positive and/or negative electroactive zones are loaded with a particle suspension that is stabilized by repulsive forces between particles induced by an electrostatic double layer or short-range steric forces due to added surfactants or dispersants. Following loading, the particle suspension is aggregated and densified by increasing the salt concentration of the suspension. In some embodiments, the salt that is added to is a salt of a working ion for the battery (e.g., a lithium salt for a lithium ion battery) and upon being added, causes the liquid phase to become an ion-conducting electrolyte (e.g., for a lithium rechargeable battery, may be one or more alkyl carbonates, or one or more ionic liquids). Upon increasing the salt concentration, the electrical double layer causing repulsion between the particles is “collapsed”, and attractive interactions cause the particle to floc, aggregate, consolidate, or otherwise densify. This allows the electrode of the battery to be formed from the suspension while it has a low viscosity, for example, by pouring, injection, or pumping into the positive and/or negative electroactive zones that can form a net-shaped electrode, and then allows particles within the suspension to be consolidated for improved electrical conduction, higher packing density and longer shelf life.

In some embodiments, the cathode 140 and/or anode 150 semi-solid suspension can initially be flowable, and can be caused to become non-flowable by “fixing”. In some embodiments, fixing can be performed by the action of photopolymerization. In some embodiments, fixing is performed by action of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths that are transmitted by the unfilled positive and/or negative electroactive zones of the electrochemical cell 100 formed from a semi-solid cathode and/or semi-solid anode. In some embodiments, one or more additives are added to the semi-solid suspensions to facilitate fixing.

In some embodiments, the injectable and flowable cathode 140 and/or anode 150 semi-solid is caused to become non-flowable by “plasticizing”. In some embodiments, the rheological properties of the injectable and flowable semi-solid suspension are modified by the addition of a thinner, a thickener, and/or a plasticizing agent. In some embodiments, these agents promote processability and help retain compositional uniformity of the semi-solid under flowing conditions and positive and negative electroactive zone filling operations. In some embodiments, one or more additives are added to the flowable semi-solid suspension to adjust its flow properties to accommodate processing requirements.

Semi-Solid Composition

In some embodiments, the cathode 140 and in some embodiments, the anode 150 semi-solid provide a means to produce a substance that functions collectively as an ion-storage/ion-source, electron conductor, and ionic conductor in a single medium that acts as a working electrode.

The cathode 140 and/or anode 150 semi-solid ion-storing redox composition as described herein can have, when taken in moles per liter (molarity), at least 10M concentration of redox species. In some embodiments, the cathode 140 and/or the anode 150 semi-solids ion-storing redox composition can have at least 12M, at least 15M, or at least 20M. The electrochemically active material can be an ion storage material and or any other compound or ion complex that is capable of undergoing Faradaic reaction in order to store energy. The electroactive material can also be a multiphase material including the above described redox-active solid mixed with a non-redox-active phase, including solid-liquid suspensions, or liquid-liquid multiphase mixtures, including micelles or emulsions having a liquid ion-storage material intimately mixed with a supporting liquid phase. Systems that utilize various working ions can include aqueous systems in which Li⁺, Na⁺, or other alkali ions are the working ions, even alkaline earth working ions such as Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, or Al³⁺. In each of these instances, a negative electrode storage material and a positive electrode storage material may be required, the negative electrode storing the working ion of interest at a lower absolute electrical potential than the positive electrode. The cell voltage can be determined approximately by the difference in ion-storage potentials of the two ion-storage electrode materials.

Systems employing negative and/or positive ion-storage materials that are insoluble storage hosts for working ions, meaning that said materials can take up or release the working ion while all other constituents of the materials remain substantially insoluble in the electrolyte, are particularly advantageous as the electrolyte does not become contaminated with electrochemical composition products. In addition, systems employing negative and/or positive lithium ion-storage materials are particularly advantageous when using non-aqueous electrochemical compositions.

In some embodiments, the semi-solid ion-storing redox compositions include materials proven to work in conventional lithium-ion batteries. In some embodiments, the positive semi-solid electroactive material contains lithium positive electroactive materials and the lithium cations are shuttled between the negative electrode and positive electrode, intercalating into solid, host particles suspended in a liquid electrolyte.

In some embodiments, at least one of the semi-solid cathode 140 and/or anode 150 includes a condensed ion-storing liquid of a redox-active compound, which may be organic or inorganic, and includes but is not limited to lithium metal, sodium metal, lithium-metal alloys, gallium and indium alloys with or without dissolved lithium, molten transition metal chlorides, thionyl chloride, and the like, or redox polymers and organics that can be liquid under the operating conditions of the battery. Such a liquid form may also be diluted by or mixed with another, non-redox-active liquid that is a diluent or solvent, including mixing with such diluents to form a lower-melting liquid phase. In some embodiments, the redox-active component can comprise, by mass, at least 10% of the total mass of the electrolyte. In other embodiments, the redox-active component will comprise, by mass, between approximately 10% and 25% of the total mass of the electrolyte. In some embodiments, the redox-active component will comprise by mass, at least 25% or more of the total mass of the electrolyte.

In some embodiments, the redox-active electrode material, whether used as a semi-solid or a condensed liquid format as defined above, comprises an organic redox compound that stores the working ion of interest at a potential useful for either the positive or negative electrode of a battery. Such organic redox-active storage materials include “p”-doped conductive polymers such as polyaniline or polyacetylene based materials, polynitroxide or organic radical electrodes (such as those described in: H. Nishide et al., Electrochim. Acta, 50, 827-831, (2004), and K. Nakahara, et al., Chem. Phys. Lett., 359, 351-354 (2002)), carbonyl based organics, and oxocarbons and carboxylate, including compounds such as Li₂C₆O₆, Li₂C₈H₄O₄, and Li₂C₆H₄O₄ (see for example M. Armand et al., Nature Materials, DOI: 10.1038/nmat2372) and organosulfur compounds.

In some embodiments, organic redox compounds that are electronically insulating are used. In some instance, the redox compounds are in a condensed liquid phase such as liquid or flowable polymers that are electronically insulating. In such cases, the redox active slurry may or may not contain an additional carrier liquid. Additives can be combined with the condensed phase liquid redox compound to increase electronic conductivity. In some embodiments, such electronically insulating organic redox compounds are rendered electrochemically active by mixing or blending with particulates of an electronically conductive material, such as solid inorganic conductive materials including but not limited to metals, metal carbides, metal nitrides, metal oxides, and allotropes of carbon including carbon black, graphitic carbon, carbon fibers, carbon microfibers, vapor-grown carbon fibers (VGCF), fullerenic carbons including “buckyballs”, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), graphene sheets or aggregates of graphene sheets, and materials comprising fullerenic fragments.

In some embodiments, such electronically insulating organic redox compounds are rendered electronically active by mixing or blending with an electronically conductive polymer, including but not limited to polyaniline or polyacetylene based conductive polymers or poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), polypyrrole, polythiophene, poly(p-phenylene), poly(triphenylene), polyazulene, polyfluorene, polynaphtalene, polyanthracene, polyfuran, polycarbazole, tetrathiafulvalene-substituted polystyrene, ferrocene-substituted polyethylene, carbazole-substituted polyethylene, polyoxyphenazine, polyacenes, or poly(heteroacenes. The conductive additives form an electrically conducting framework within the insulating liquid redox compounds that significantly increases the electrically conductivity of the composition. In some embodiments, the conductive addition forms a percolative pathway to the current collector. In some embodiments the redox-active electrode material comprises a sol or gel, including for example metal oxide sols or gels produced by the hydrolysis of metal alkoxides, amongst other methods generally known as “sol-gel processing.” Vanadium oxide gels of composition V_(x)O_(y) are amongst such redox-active sol-gel materials.

Other suitable positive active materials for use in the cathode 140 include solid compounds known to those skilled in the art as those used in NiMH (Nickel-Metal Hydride) Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) batteries. Still other positive electrode compounds for Li storage include those used in carbon monofluoride batteries, generally referred to as CFx, or metal fluoride compounds having approximate stoichiometry MF₂ or MF₃ where M comprises, for example, Fe, Bi, Ni, Co, Ti, or V. Examples include those described in H. Li, P. Balaya, and J. Maier, Li-Storage via Heterogeneous Reaction in Selected Binary Metal Fluorides and Oxides, Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 151 [11] A1878-A1885 (2004), M. Bervas, A. N. Mansour, W.-S. Woon, J. F. Al-Sharab, F. Badway, F. Cosandey, L. C. Klein, and G. G. Amatucci, “Investigation of the Lithiation and Delithiation Conversion Mechanisms in a Bismuth Fluoride Nanocomposites”, J. Electrochem. Soc., 153, A799 (2006), and I. Plitz, F. Badway, J. Al-Sharab, A. DuPasquier, F. Cosandey and G. G. Amatucci, “Structure and Electrochemistry of Carbon-Metal Fluoride Nanocomposites Fabricated by a Solid State Redox Conversion Reaction”, J. Electrochem. Soc., 152, A307 (2005).

As another example, fullerenic carbon including single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), or metal or metalloid nanowires may be used as ion-storage materials. One example is the silicon nanowires used as a high energy density storage material in a report by C. K. Chan, H. Peng, G. Liu, K. Mcllwrath, X. F. Zhang, R. A. Huggins, and Y. Cui, High-performance lithium battery anodes using silicon nanowires, Nature Nanotechnology, published online 16 Dec. 2007; doi:10.1038/nnano.2007.411. In some embodiments, electroactive materials for the cathode 140 in a lithium system can include the general family of ordered rocksalt compounds LiMO₂ including those having the α-NaFeO₂ (so-called “layered compounds”) or orthorhombic-LiMnO₂ structure type or their derivatives of different crystal symmetry, atomic ordering, or partial substitution for the metals or oxygen. M comprises at least one first-row transition metal but may include non-transition metals including but not limited to Al, Ca, Mg, or Zr. Examples of such compounds include LiCoO₂. LiCoO₂ doped with Mg, LiNiO₂, Li(Ni, Co, Al)O₂ (known as “NCA”) and Li(Ni, Mn, Co)O₂ (known as “NMC”). Other families of exemplary cathode 140 electroactive materials includes those of spinel structure, such as LiMn₂O₄ and its derivatives, so-called “layered-spinel nanocomposites” in which the structure includes nanoscopic regions having ordered rocksalt and spinel ordering, olivines LiMPO₄ and their derivatives, in which M comprises one or more of Mn, Fe, Co, or Ni, partially fluorinated compounds such as LiVPO₄F, other “polyanion” compounds as described below, and vanadium oxides V_(x)O_(y) including V₂O₅ and V₆O₁₁.

In some embodiments, the cathode 140 electroactive material comprises a transition metal polyanion compound, for example as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,338,734. In some embodiments the active material comprises an alkali metal transition metal oxide or phosphate, and for example, the compound has a composition A_(x)(M′_(1-a)M″_(a))_(y)(XD₄)_(z), A_(x)(M′_(1-a)M″_(a))_(y)(DXD₄)_(z), or A_(x)(M′_(1-a)M″_(a))_(y)(X₂D₇)_(z), and have values such that x, plus y(1−a) times a formal valence or valences of M′, plus ya times a formal valence or valence of M″, is equal to z times a formal valence of the XD₄, X₂D₇, or DXD₄ group; or a compound comprising a composition (A_(1-a) M″_(a))_(x)M′_(y)(XD₄)_(z), (A_(1-a)M″_(a))_(x)M′_(y)(DXD₄)_(z)(A_(1-a)M″_(a))M′_(y)(X₂D₇)_(z) and have values such that (1−a)x plus the quantity ax times the formal valence or valences of M″ plus y times the formal valence or valences of M′ is equal to z times the formal valence of the XD₄, X₂D₇ or DXD₄ group. In the compound, A is at least one of an alkali metal and hydrogen, M′ is a first-row transition metal, X is at least one of phosphorus, sulfur, arsenic, molybdenum, and tungsten, M″ any of a Group IIA, IlA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA, VIIIA, IB, IIB, IIIB, IVB, VB, and VIB metal, D is at least one of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, or a halogen. The positive electroactive material can be an olivine structure compound LiMPO₄, where M is one or more of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni, in which the compound is optionally doped at the Li, M or O-sites. Deficiencies at the Li-site are compensated by the addition of a metal or metalloid, and deficiencies at the O-site are compensated by the addition of a halogen. In some embodiments, the positive active material comprises a thermally stable, transition-metal-doped lithium transition metal phosphate having the olivine structure and having the formula (Li_(1-x)Z_(x))MPO₄, where M is one or more of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni, and Z is a non-alkali metal dopant such as one or more of Ti, Zr, Nb, Al, or Mg, and x ranges from 0.005 to 0.05.

In other embodiments, the lithium transition metal phosphate material has an overall composition of Li_(1-x-z)M_(1+z)PO₄, where M comprises at least one first row transition metal selected from the group consisting of Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni, where x is from 0 to 1 and z can be positive or negative. M includes Fe, z is between about 0.15-0.15. The material can exhibit a solid solution over a composition range of 0<x<0.15, or the material can exhibit a stable solid solution over a composition range of x between 0 and at least about 0.05, or the material can exhibit a stable solid solution over a composition range of x between 0 and at least about 0.07 at room temperature (22-25° C.). The material may also exhibit a solid solution in the lithium-poor regime, e.g., where x≧0.8, or x≧0.9, or x≧0.95.

In some embodiments the redox-active electrode material comprises a metal salt that stores an alkali ion by undergoing a displacement or conversion reaction. Examples of such compounds include metal oxides such as CoO, Co₃O₄, NiO, CuO, MnO, typically used as a negative electrode in a lithium battery, which upon reaction with Li undergo a displacement or conversion reaction to form a mixture of Li₂O and the metal constituent in the form of a more reduced oxide or the metallic form. Other examples include metal fluorides such as CuF₂, FeF₂, FeF₃, BiF₃, CoF₂, and NiF₂, which undergo a displacement or conversion reaction to form LiF and the reduced metal constituent. Such fluorides may be used as the positive electrode in a lithium battery. In other embodiments the redox-active electrode material comprises carbon monofluoride or its derivatives. In some embodiments the material undergoing displacement or conversion reaction is in the form of particulates having on average dimensions of 100 nanometers or less. In some embodiments the material undergoing displacement or conversion reaction comprises a nanocomposite of the active material mixed with an inactive host, including but not limited to conductive and relatively ductile compounds such as carbon, or a metal, or a metal sulfide. FeS₂ and FeF₃ can also be used as cheap and electronically conductive active materials in a nonaqueous or aqueous lithium system.

In some embodiments, the working ion is selected from the group consisting of Li⁺, Na⁺, H⁺, Mg²⁺, Al³⁺, or Ca²⁺.

In some embodiments, the working ion is selected from the group consisting of Li⁺ or Na⁺.

In some embodiments, the semi-solid ion-storing redox composition includes a solid including an ion-storage compound.

In some embodiments, the ion is proton or hydroxyl ion and the ion storage compound includes those used in a nickel-cadmium or nickel metal hydride battery.

In some embodiments, the ion is lithium and the ion storage compound is selected from the group consisting of metal fluorides such as CuF₂, FeF₂, FeF₃, BiF₃, CoF₂, and NiF₂.

In some embodiments, the ion is lithium and the ion storage compound is selected from the group consisting of metal oxides such as CoO, Co₃O₄, NiO, CuO, MnO.

In some embodiments, the ion is lithium and the ion storage compound includes an intercalation compound selected from compounds with formula (Li_(1-x) Z_(x))MPO₄, where M is one or more of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni, and Z is a non-alkali metal dopant such as one or more of Ti, Zr, Nb, Al, or Mg, and x ranges from 0.005 to 0.05.

In some embodiments, the ion is lithium and the ion storage compound includes an intercalation compound selected from compounds with formula LiMPO₄, where M is one or more of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni, in which the compound is optionally doped at the Li, M or O-sites.

In some embodiments, the ion is lithium and the ion storage compound includes an intercalation compound selected from the group consisting of A_(x)(M′_(1-a)M″_(a))_(y)(XD₄)_(z), A_(x)(M′_(1-a) M″_(a))_(y)(DXD₄)_(z), and A_(x)(M′_(1-a)M″_(a))_(y)(X₂D₇)_(z), wherein x, plus y(1−a) times a formal valence or valences of M′, plus ya times a formal valence or valence of M″, is equal to z times a formal valence of the XD₄, X₂D₇, or DXD₄ group; and A is at least one of an alkali metal and hydrogen, M′ is a first-row transition metal, X is at least one of phosphorus, sulfur, arsenic, molybdenum, and tungsten, M″ any of a Group IIA, IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA, VIIIA, IB, IIB, IIIB, IVB, VB, and VIB metal, D is at least one of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, or a halogen.

In some embodiments, the ion is lithium and the ion storage compound includes an intercalation compound selected from the group consisting of A_(1-a)M″_(a))_(x)M′_(y)(XD₄)_(z), (A_(1-a)M″_(a))_(x)M′_(y)(DXD₄)z and A_(1-a)M″_(a))_(x)M′_(y)(X₂D₇)_(z), where (1−a)x plus the quantity ax times the formal valence or valences of M″ plus y times the formal valence or valences of M′ is equal to z times the formal valence of the XD₄, X₂D₇ or DXD₄ group, and A is at least one of an alkali metal and hydrogen, M′ is a first-row transition metal, X is at least one of phosphorus, sulfur, arsenic, molybdenum, and tungsten, M″ any of a Group IIA, IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA, VIIIA, IB, IIB, IIIB, IVB, VB, and VIB metal, D is at least one of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, or a halogen.

In some embodiments, the ion is lithium and the ion storage compound includes an intercalation compound selected from the group consisting of ordered rocksalt compounds LiMO₂ including those having the including those having the α-NaFeO₂ and orthorhombic —LiMnO₂ structure type or their derivatives of different crystal symmetry, atomic ordering, or partial substitution for the metals or oxygen, where M includes at least one first-row transition metal but may include non-transition metals including but not limited to Al, Ca, Mg or Zr.

In some embodiments, the semi-solid ion storing redox composition includes a solid including amorphous carbon, disordered carbon, graphitic carbon, or a metal-coated or metal decorated carbon.

In some embodiments, the semi-solid ion storing redox composition can include a solid including nanostructures, for example, nanowires, nanorods, and nanotetrapods.

In some embodiments, the semi-solid ion storing redox composition includes a solid including an organic redox compound.

In some embodiments, the positive electrode can include a semi-solid ion storing redox composition including a solid selected from the groups consisting of ordered rocksalt compounds LiMO₂ including those having the α-NaFeO₂ and orthorhombic-LiMnO₂ structure type or their derivatives of different crystal symmetry, atomic ordering, or partial substitution for the metals or oxygen, wherein M Includes at least one first-row transition metal but may include non-transition metals including but not limited to Al, Ca, Mg, or Zr. The negative electrode can includes a semi-solid ion-storing composition including a solid selected from the group consisting of amorphous carbon, disordered carbon, graphitic carbon, or a metal-coated or metal-decorated carbon.

In some embodiments, the positive electrode can include a semi-solid ion-storing redox composition including a solid selected from the group consisting of A_(x)(M′_(1-a)M″_(a))_(y)(XD₄)_(z), A_(x)(M′_(1-a)M″_(a))_(y)(DXD₄)_(z), and A_(x)(M′t_(1-a)-M″_(a))_(y)(X₂D₇)_(z), and where x, plus y(1−a) times a formal valence or valences of M′, plus ya times a formal valence or valence of M″, is equal to z times a formal valence of the XD₄, X₂D₇, or DXD₄ group, and A is at least one of an alkali metal and hydrogen, M′ is a first-row transition metal, X is at least one of phosphorus, sulfur, arsenic, molybdenum, and tungsten, M″ any of a Group IIA, IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA, VIIIA, IB, IIB, IIIB, IVB, VB, and VIB metal, D is at least one of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, or a halogen and the negative electrode includes a semi-solid ion-storing redox composition including a solid selected from the group consisting of amorphous carbon, disordered carbon, graphitic carbon, or a metal-coated or metal-decorated carbon.

In some embodiments, the anode can include a semi-solid ion-storing redox composition including a compound with a spinel structure.

In some embodiments, the positive electrode includes a semi-solid ion-storing redox composition including a compound selected from the group consisting of LiMn₂O₄ and its derivatives; layered-spinel nanocomposites in which the structure includes nanoscopic regions having ordered rocksalt and spinel ordering; so-called “high voltage spinels” with a potential vs. Li/Li+ that exceeds 4.3V including but not limited to LiNi_(0.5)Mn_(1.5)O₄; olivines LiMPO₄ and their derivatives, in which M includes one or more of Mn, Fe, Co, or Ni, partially fluorinated compounds such as LiVPO₄F, other “polyanion” compounds, and vanadium oxides V_(x)O_(y) including V₂O₅ and V₆O₁₁.

In some embodiments the semi-solid battery is a lithium battery, and the anode 150 compound comprises graphite, graphitic or non-graphitic carbon, amorphous carbon, mesocarbon microbeads, boron-carbon alloys, hard or disordered carbon, lithium titanate spinel, or a solid metal or metal alloy or metalloid or metalloid alloy that reacts with lithium to form intermetallic compounds, e.g., Sim Ge, Sn, Bi, Zn, Ag, Al, any other suitable metal alloy, metalloid alloy or combination thereof, or a lithiated metal or metal alloy including such compounds as LiAl, Li₉Al₄, Li₃Al, LiZn, LiAg, Li₁₀Ag₃, LisB₄, Li₇B₆, Li₁₂Si₇, Li₂₁Si₇, Li₁₃Si₄, Li₂₁Si₅, Li₅Sn₂, Li₁₃Sn₅, Li₇Sn₂, Li₂₂Sn₅, Li₂Sb, Li₃Sb, LiBi, or Li₃Bi, or amorphous metal alloys of lithiated or non-lithiated compositions, any other materials or alloys thereof, or any other combination thereof.

In some embodiments, the electrochemical function of the semi-solid redox cell is improved by mixing or blending the cathode 140 and/or anode 150 particles with particulates of an electronically conductive material, such as solid inorganic conductive materials including but not limited to metals, metal carbides, metal nitrides, metal oxides, and allotropes of carbon including carbon black, graphitic carbon, carbon fibers, carbon microfibers, vapor-grown carbon fibers (VGCF), fullerenic carbons including “buckyballs”, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), graphene sheets or aggregates of graphene sheets, and materials comprising fullerenic fragments. In some embodiments, such electronically insulating organic redox compounds are rendered electronically active by mixing or blending with an electronically conductive polymer, including but not limited to polyaniline or polyacetylene based conductive polymers or poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), polypyrrole, polythiophene, poly(p-phenylene), poly(triphenylene), polyazulene, polyfluorene, polynaphtalene, polyanthracene, polyfuran, polycarbazole, tetrathiafulvalene-substituted polystyrene, ferrocene-substituted polyethylene, carbazole-substituted polyethylene, polyoxyphenazine, polyacenes, or poly(heteroacenes).). In some embodiments, the resulting cathode or anode mixture has an electronic conductivity of at least about 10⁻⁶ S/cm. In other embodiments, the mixture has an electronic conductivity between approximately 10⁻⁶ S/cm and 10⁻³ S/cm. In other embodiments, the mixture has an electronic conductivity of at least about 10⁻⁵ S/cm, or at least about 10⁻⁴ S/cm, of at least about 10⁻³ S/cm, of at least about 10⁻² S/cm or more.

In some embodiments, the particles included in the semi-solid anode or cathode can be configured to have a partial or full conductive coating.

In some embodiments, the semi-solid ion-storing redox composition includes an ion-storing solid coated with a conductive coating material. In some embodiments, the conductive coating material has higher electron conductivity than the solid. In some embodiments, the solid is graphite and the conductive coating material is a metal, metal carbide, metal oxide, metal nitride, or carbon. In some embodiments, the metal is copper.

In some embodiments, the solid of the semi-solid ion-storing material is coated with metal that is redox inert at the operating conditions of the redox energy storage device. In some embodiments, the solid of the semi-solid ion storing material is coated with copper to increase the conductivity of the storage material particle, to increase the net conductivity of the semi-solid, and/or to facilitate charge transfer between energy storage particles and conductive additives. In some embodiments, the storage material particle is coated with, about 1.5% by weight metallic copper. In some embodiments, the storage material particle is coated with about 3.0% by weight metallic copper. In some embodiments, the storage material particle is coated with about 8.5% by weight metallic copper. In some embodiments, the storage material particle is coated with about 10.0% by weight metallic copper. In some embodiments, the storage material particle is coated with about 15.0% by weight metallic copper. In some embodiments, the storage material particle is coated with about 20.0% by weight metallic copper.

In some embodiments, the conductive coating is placed on the cathode 140 and/or anode 150 particles by chemical precipitation of the conductive element and subsequent drying and/or calcination.

In some embodiments, the conductive coating is placed on the cathode 140 and/or anode 150 particles by electroplating (e.g., within a fluidized bed).

In some embodiments, the conductive coating is placed on the cathode 140 and/or anode 150 particles by co-sintering with a conductive compound and subsequent comminution.

In some embodiments, the electrochemically active particles have a continuous intraparticle conductive material or are embedded in a conductive matrix.

In some embodiments, a conductive coating and intraparticulate conductive network is produced by multicomponent-spray-drying, a semi-solid cathode 140 and/or anode 150 particles and conductive material particulates.

In some embodiments, the semi-solid composition also includes conductive polymers that provide an electronically conductive element. In some embodiments, the conductive polymers are one or more of a polyacetylene, polyaniline, olythiophene, polypyrrole, poly(p-phenylene), poly(triphenylene), polyazulene, polyfluorene, polynaphtalene, polyanthracene, polyfuran, polycarbazole, polyacenes, poly(heteroacenes). In some embodiments, the conductive polymer is a compound that reacts in-situ to form a conductive polymer on the surface of the active material particles. In some embodiments, the compound can be 2-hexylthiophene or 3-hexylthiophene and oxidizes during charging of the battery to form a conductive polymer coating on solid particles in the cathode semi-solid suspension. In other embodiments, redox active material can be embedded in conductive matrix. The redox active material can coat the exterior and interior interfaces in a flocculated or agglomerated particulate of conductive material. In some embodiments, the redox-active material and the conductive material can be two components of a composite particulate. Without being bound by any theory or mode of operation, such coatings can pacify the redox active particles and can help prevent undesirable reactions with carrier liquid or electrolyte. As such, it can serve as a synthetic solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer.

In some embodiments, inexpensive iron compounds such as pyrite (FeS₂) are used as inherently electronically conductive ion storage compounds. In some embodiments, the ion that is stored is Li⁺.

In some embodiments, redox mediators are added to the semi-solid to improve the rate of charge transfer within the semi-solid electrode. In some embodiments, this redox mediator is ferrocene or a ferrocene-containing polymer. In some embodiments, the redox mediator is one or more of tetrathiafulvalene-substituted polystyrene, ferrocene-substituted polyethylene, carbazole-substituted polyethylene.

In some embodiments, the surface conductivity or charge transfer resistance of current collectors 110/120 used in the semi-solid battery is increased by coating the current collector surface with a conductive material. Such layers can also serve as a synthetic SEI layer. Non-limiting examples of conductive coating materials include carbon, a metal, metal-carbide, metal nitride, metal oxide, or conductive polymer. In some embodiments, the conductive polymer includes but is not limited to polyaniline or polyacetylene based conductive polymers or poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), polypyrrole, polythiophene, poly(p-phenylene), poly(triphenylene), polyazulene, polyfluorene, polynaphtalene, polyanthracene, polyfuran, polycarbazole, tetrathiafulvalene-substituted polystyrene, ferrocene-substituted polyethylene, carbazole-substituted polyethylene, polyoxyphenazine, polyacenes, or poly(heteroacenes). In some embodiments, the conductive polymer is a compound that reacts in-situ to form a conductive polymer on the surface of the current collector. In some embodiments, the compound is 2-hexylthiophene and oxidizes at a high potential to form a conductive polymer coating on the current collector. In some embodiments; the current collector is coated with metal that is redox-inert at the operating conditions of the redox energy storage device.

The semi-solid redox compositions can include various additives to improve the performance of the redox cell. The liquid phase of the semi-solids in such instances would comprise a solvent, in which is dissolved an electrolyte salt, and binders, thickeners, or other additives added to improve stability, reduce gas formation, improve SEI formation on the negative electrode particles, and the like. Examples of such additives included vinylene carbonate (VC), vinylethylene carbonate (VEC), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), or alkyl cinnamates, to provide a stable passivation layer on the anode or thin passivation layer on the oxide cathode, propane sultone (PS), propene sultone (PrS), or ethylene thiocarbonate as antigassing agents, biphenyl (BP), cyclohexylbenzene, or partially hydrogenated terphenyls, as gassingsafety/cathode polymerization agents, or lithium bis(oxatlato)borate as an anode passivation agent.

In some embodiments, the semi-solid cathode 140 and/or anode 150 can include a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte that can include polar solvents such as, for example, alcohols or aprotic organic solvents. Numerous organic solvents have been proposed as the components of Li-ion battery electrolytes, notably a family of cyclic carbonate esters such as ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, butylene carbonate, and their chlorinated or fluorinated derivatives, and a family of acyclic dialkyl carbonate esters, such as dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethylmethyl carbonate, dipropyl carbonate, methyl propyl carbonate, ethyl propyl carbonate, dibutyl carbonate, butylmethyl carbonate, butylethyl carbonate and butylpropyl carbonate. Other solvents proposed as components of Li-ion battery electrolyte solutions include y-butyrolactone, dimethoxyethane, tetrahydrofuran, 2-methyl tetrahydrofuran, 1,3-dioxolane, 4-methyl-1,3-dioxolane, diethyl ether, sulfolane, methylsulfolane, acetonitrile, propiononitrile, ethyl acetate, methyl propionate, ethyl propionate, dimethyl carbonate, tetraglyme, and the like. These nonaqueous solvents are typically used as multicomponent mixtures, into which a salt is dissolved to provide ionic conductivity. Exemplary salts to provide lithium conductivity include LiClO₄, LiPF₆, LiBF₄, LiTFSI, LiBETI, LiBOB, and the like.

In some embodiments, the non-aqueous cathode 140 and/or anode 150 semi-solid compositions are prevented from absorbing impurity water and generating acid (such as HF in the case of LiPF₆ salt) by incorporating compounds that getter water into the active material suspension, or into the storage tanks or other plumbing of the system, for example, in the case of redox flow cell batteries. Optionally, the additives are basic oxides that neutralize the acid. Such compounds include but are not limited to silica gel, calcium sulfate (for example, the product known as Drierite), aluminum oxide and aluminum hydroxide.

In some embodiment, the cathode 140 can be a semi-solid cathode and the anode 150 can be a conventional anode for example, a solid anode formed from the calendering process as is commonly known in the arts. In some embodiments, the cathode 140 can be a semi-solid cathode and the anode 150 can also be a semi-solid anode as described herein. In some embodiments, the cathode 140 and the anode 150 can both be semi-solid flowable electrodes, for example, for use in a redox flow cell.

The following examples show the electrochemical properties of various electrochemical cells that include the semi-solid electrodes described herein, compared with two conventional tablet batteries that include Li-ion Tablet Battery 1 and Li-ion Tablet Battery 2. FIG. 2 summarizes the electrochemical properties of the semi-solid electrode formulations and the comparative batteries. These examples are only for illustrative purposes and are not intended to limit the scope of the present disclosure.

Comparative Example 1

A first commercially available tablet battery, Li-ion Tablet Battery 1 (also referred to as “Comp Ex 1”) was discharged at various C-rates as shown in FIG. 2. At C/2 rate, corresponding to a current density of about 1 mA/cm², the Comp Ex 1 battery had an areal capacity of about 2.7 mAh/cm². At 1C rate, corresponding to a current density of about 2.2 mA/cm², the areal capacity is still about 2.7 mAh/cm². However, above current density of about 5 mA/cm², the areal capacity drops rapidly until it is nearly zero at about 10 mA/cm².

Comparative Example 2

A second commercially available tablet battery, Li-ion Tablet Battery 2 (also referred to as “Comp Ex 2”) was discharged at various C-rates as shown in FIG. 2. At C/2 rate, corresponding to a current density of about 1.75 mA/cm², the Comp Ex 1 battery had an areal capacity of about 4.2 mAh/cm². At 1C rate, corresponding to a current density of about 4 mA/cm², the areal capacity is about 4 mAh/cm². However, above current density of about 4 mA/cm², the areal capacity drops rapidly until it is nearly zero at about 7.5 mA/cm².

Example 1

An electrochemical half cell Example 1 (also referred to as “Ex 1”) was prepared using a semi-solid cathode and a Li metal anode. The LFP semi-solid cathode was prepared by mixing 45 vol % LFP and 2 vol % carbon black with an ethylene carbonate/dimethyl carbonate/LiPF₆ based electrolyte. The cathode slurry was prepared using a batchmixer with a roller mill blade fitting. Mixing was performed at 100 rpm for 2 minutes. The semi-solid slurry had a mixing index greater than 0.9 and a conductivity of 1.5×10⁻⁴ S/cm. The slurry was made into an electrode of 250 μm thickness and was tested against a Li metal anode in a Swagelok cell configuration. The cell was tested using a Maccor battery tester and was cycled between a voltage range of V=2-4.2 V. The cell was charged using a constant current-constant voltage with a constant current rate at C/10 and C/8 for the first two cycles then at C/5 for the latter cycles. The constant current charge is followed by a constant voltage hold at 4.2 V until the charging current decreased to less than C/20. The cell was discharged over a range of current densities corresponding to C-rates between C/10 and 5C. FIG. 3A illustrates the charge and discharge capacities as a function of the discharge C-rate for the semi-solid electrode of Example 1, and FIG. 3B illustrates a representative charge and discharge curve at low C-rates. The nominal cell capacity of 2.23 mAh corresponds to complete utilization of the LFP cathode active material. As shown in FIG. 2, at C-rates below C/4, the Ex 1 battery had an areal capacity greater than 7 mAh/cm², much greater than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2. At C/2 rate, corresponding to a current density of about 3.7 mA/cm², the Ex 1 battery had an areal capacity of about 6.8 mAh/cm². At 1C rate, corresponding to a current density of about 6 mA/cm², the areal capacity is about 6 mAh/cm². At these C-rates, the areal capacity is higher than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2. Moreover, with increasing current density beyond about 6 mA/cm², the areal capacity falls off much more gradually than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2.

Example 2

An electrochemical half cell Example 2 (also referred to as “Ex 2”) was prepared using a semi-solid cathode and a lithium metal anode. The cathode slurry was prepared by mixing 45 vol % Li(Ni,Mn,Co)O₂ and 8 vol % carbon additive with an ethylene carbonate/dimethyl carbonate/LiPF₆ based electrolyte. The cathode slurry was prepared using a batchmixer fitted with roller blades. Mixing was performed at 100 rpm for 4 minutes. The cell was tested using a Maccor battery tester and was cycled over a voltage range of V=2-4.3 V. The cell was charged using a constant current-constant voltage procedure with the constant current portion being at C/10 and C/8 rate for the first two cycles then at C/5 rate for later cycles. The constant current charge step was followed by a constant voltage hold at 4.2 V until the charging current decreased to less than C/20. The cell was then discharged over a range of current density. As shown in FIG. 2, at C-rates below C/4, the Ex 2 battery had an areal capacity greater than 10 mAh/cm², much greater than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2. At C/2 rate, corresponding to a current density of about 4.5 mA/cm², the Ex 1 battery had an areal capacity of about 9.5 mAh/cm². At 1C rate, corresponding to a current density of about 8 mA/cm², the areal capacity is about 8 mAh/cm². At these C-rates, the areal capacity is higher than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2. Moreover, with increasing current density beyond about 6 mA/cm², the areal capacity falls off much more gradually than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2.

Example 3

An electrochemical full cell Example 3 (also referred to as “Ex 3”) included a semi-solid cathode formulated from 35 vol % Li(Ni,Mn,Co)O₂ such that the semi-solid cathode had a thickness of 250 μm, and was tested against a semi-solid anode formulated from 40 vol % graphite and 2 vol % carbon additive such that the anode had a thickness of 250 m. The NMC semi-solid cathode was prepared by mixing 35 vol % NMC and 8 vol % carbon black with an ethylene carbonate/dimethyl carbonate/LiPF₆ based electrolyte. The cathode slurry was prepared using a batchmixer fitted with roller blades. Mixing was performed at 100 rpm for 4 minutes. The graphite semi-solid anode was prepared by mixing 40 vol % graphite and 2 vol % carbon black using the same electrolyte as the cathode. The anode slurry formulation was mixed at 100 rpm for 30 seconds to yield a semi-solid anode suspension. The cathode and anode semi-solid slurries were formed into electrodes, each with 250 μm thickness. The electrodes were used to form a NMC-Graphite based electrochemical full cell having active areas for both cathode and anode of approximately 80 cm². The electrochemical full cell Ex 3 was charged using a constant current-constant voltage charging procedure (CC-CV) and a constant current discharge between 2.75-4.2 V using a Maccor tester. The cell was discharged over a range of current densities. As shown in FIG. 2, at C-rates below C/4, the Ex 3 battery had an areal capacity of about 6 mAh/cm², much greater than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2. At C/2 rate, corresponding to a current density of about 2.8 mA/cm², the Ex 1 battery had an areal capacity of about 5.7 mAh/cm². At 1C rate, corresponding to a current density of about 7.2 mA/cm², the areal capacity is about 7.5 mAh/cm². At these C-rates, the areal capacity is higher than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2. Moreover, with increasing current density beyond about 6 mA/cm², the areal capacity falls off much more gradually than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2.

Example 4

An electrochemical full cell Example 4 (also referred to as “Ex 4”) included a semi-solid cathode formulated from 35 vol % Li(Ni,Mn,Co)O₂ such that the semi-solid cathode had a thickness of 500 μm, and was tested against a semi-solid anode formulated from 40 vol % graphite and 2 vol % carbon additive such that the anode had a thickness of 500 μm. Both cathode and anode slurries and electrodes were prepared in a similar manner to those in Ex. 3 except that the electrode thicknesses were 500 μm. The Ex 4 electrochemical full cell has active areas for both cathode and anode of approximately 80 cm². The Ex 4 full cell was charged and discharge using a constant current-constant voltage charging procedure (CC-CV) and a constant current discharge between 2.75-4.2 V using a Maccor tester. The cell was discharged over a range of current densities. As shown in FIG. 2, at C-rates below C/4, the Ex 4 battery reaches an areal capacity above 11 mAh/cm², much greater than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2. At C/2 rate, corresponding to a current density of about 4.8 mA/cm², the Ex 1 battery had an areal capacity of about 9.5 mAh/cm². At 1C rate, corresponding to a current density of about 6.8 mA/cm², the areal capacity is about 6.8 mAh/cm². At these C-rates, the areal capacity is higher than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2. Moreover, with increasing current density, the areal capacity falls off much more gradually than for the batteries in Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2.

FIG. 2 shows that each of Ex 1, Ex 2, Ex 3 and Ex 4 have a substantially superior areal capacity relative to Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2 at C-rates up to about 2C. Furthermore, at very high C-rates, for example, C-rates greater than 2C, these electrochemical cells that include semi-solid electrodes still have an areal capacity superior to Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2. For example, above about 10 mAh/cm² current density, the areal capacity of each of Comp Ex 1 and Comp Ex 2 is about 0 mAh/cm², which means that no current can be drawn from the battery. In contrast, the Ex 1. Ex 2, Ex 3 and Ex 4 cells still demonstrate a substantial areal capacity at the 10 mA/cm² current density. Particularly the Ex 4 cell still had about 5 mAh/cm² charge capacity at the 10 mA/cm² current density corresponding to about 2C rate, which is about 50% of the areal capacity seen at the C/2 C-rate. Therefore, electrochemical cells that include semi-solid electrodes described herein can have a higher areal capacity than conventional electrochemical cells, and can also be discharged at high C-rates while maintaining a significant percentage of their areal capacity.

While various embodiments of the system, methods and devices have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Where methods and steps described above indicate certain events occurring in certain order, those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure would recognize that the ordering of certain steps may be modified and such modification are in accordance with the variations of the invention. Additionally, certain of the steps may be performed concurrently in a parallel process when possible, as well as performed sequentially as described above. The embodiments have been particularly shown and described, but it will be understood that various changes in form and details may be made. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. An electrochemical cell comprising: an anode; a semi-solid cathode including a suspension of about 35% to about 75% by volume of an active material and about 1% to about 8% by volume of a conductive material in a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte; and an ion-permeable membrane disposed between the anode and the semi-solid cathode; wherein the semi-solid cathode has a thickness in the range of about 250 μm to about 2,000 μm, and wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 7 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/4.
 2. The electrochemical cell of claim 1, wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least about 8 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/4.
 3. The electrochemical cell of claim 2, wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least about 9 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/4.
 4. The electrochemical cell of claim 3, wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least about 10 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/4.
 5. The electrochemical cell of claim 3, wherein the active material in the semi-solid cathode is about 50% to about 75% by volume.
 6. The electrochemical cell of claim 4, wherein the active material in the semi-solid cathode is about 60% to about 75% by volume.
 7. The electrochemical cell of claim 3, wherein the semi-solid cathode suspension has a mixing index of at least about 0.8.
 8. The electrochemical cell of claim 7, wherein the semi-solid cathode suspension has a mixing index of at least about 0.9.
 9. The electrochemical cell of claim 8, wherein the semi-solid cathode suspension has a mixing index of at least about 0.95.
 10. An electrochemical cell comprising: a semi-solid anode including a suspension of about 40% to about 75% by volume of a first active material in a first non-aqueous liquid electrolyte; a semi-solid cathode including a suspension of about 35% to about 75% by volume of a second active material and about 1% to about 8% by volume of a conductive material in a second non-aqueous liquid electrolyte; and an ion-permeable membrane disposed between the semi-solid anode and the semi-solid cathode; wherein the semi-solid anode and the semi-solid cathode each have a thickness in the range of about 250 μm, to about 2,000 μm, and wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 7 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/4.
 11. The electrochemical cell of claim 10, wherein the semi-solid anode includes about 0% to about 10% by volume of a conductive material.
 12. The electrochemical cell of claim 11, wherein the conductive material in the semi-solid anode is about 0.5% to about 2% by volume.
 13. The electrochemical cell of claim 12, wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 8 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/4.
 14. The electrochemical cell of claim 13, wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 9 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/4.
 15. The electrochemical cell of claim 14, wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 10 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/4.
 16. The electrochemical cell of claim 12, wherein the semi-solid anode suspension and/or the semi-solid cathode suspension has a mixing index of at least about 0.8.
 17. The electrochemical cell of claim 16, wherein the semi-solid anode suspension and/or the semi-solid cathode suspension has a mixing index of at least about 0.9.
 18. The electrochemical cell of claim 17, wherein the semi-solid anode suspension and/or the semi-solid cathode suspension has a mixing index of at least about 0.95.
 19. An electrochemical cell comprising an anode; a semi-solid cathode including a suspension of about 35% to about 75% by volume of an active material and about 1% to about 8% by volume of a conductive material in a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte; and an ion-permeable membrane disposed between the anode and the semi-solid cathode; wherein the semi-solid cathode has a thickness in the range of about 250 μm to about 2,000 μm, and wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 7 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/2.
 20. The electrochemical cell of claim 19, wherein the semi-solid cathode has a mixing index of at least about 0.8.
 21. The electrochemical cell of claim 20, wherein the semi-solid cathode has a mixing index of at least about 0.9.
 22. The electrochemical cell of claim 21, wherein the semi-solid cathode has a mixing index of at least about 0.95.
 23. The electrochemical cell of claim 21, wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 8 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/2.
 24. An electrochemical cell comprising: a semi-solid anode including a suspension of a first active material in a first non-aqueous liquid electrolyte; a semi-solid cathode including a suspension of about 35% to about 75% by volume of a second active material and about 1% to about 8% by volume of a conductive material in a second non-aqueous liquid electrolyte; and an ion-permeable membrane disposed between the semi-solid anode and the semi-solid cathode, wherein the semi-solid anode and the semi-solid cathode each have a thickness in the range of about 250 μm to about 2,000 μm, and wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 7 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/2.
 25. The electrochemical cell of claim 24, wherein the semi-solid anode includes 40% to about 75% by volume of the first active material.
 26. The electrochemical cell of claim 24, wherein the semi-solid anode and/or the semi-solid cathode has a mixing index of at least about 0.8.
 27. The electrochemical cell of claim 24, wherein the electrochemical cell has an area specific capacity of at least 7 mAh/cm² at a C-rate of C/4. 